Academic: Chapter 1 of my PhD

This is the first draft of chapter one of my PhD thesis. No doubt it will change after my supervisor rips into it! Sorry about the formatting, but I'm not going to go through the whole thing and reformat it!

Marcus


Chapter 1. Introduction: Contexts, Methods, Definitions
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The research topic and key questions
1.2.1 Definition and important distinctions
1.2.2 Two problematics: Uncertain epistemology and nebulous definitions
1.2.3 Further distinctions
1.2.4 A brief history of integrated intelligence and its contemporary relevance
1.3.1 Contextualizing the thesis
1.3.2 Intelligence theory and integrated intelligence
1.4.1 The methodology
1.4.2 Poststructuralist thought and Causal Layered Analysis
1.4.3 CLA, Futures and Bussey’s critical spirituality
1.4.4 Wilber’s Integral Theory
1.4.5 The integrated/fragmented mind model (IFM)
1.4.6 Participatory futures and integrated intelligence
1.4.7 Ways of knowing
1.4.8 Limitations of the method, and thesis in general
l.5 Chapter outline
1.6 Conclusion to chapter one
1.1.1 Introduction
It would take quite a bit of imagination to visualize a consciousness that runs a galaxy, a cluster, a cluster of galaxies, or finally, the universe. There is such a consciousness, and we shall call it the Creator. All these consciousnesses are in communication with each other, and we could even eavesdrop on their conversations while in a high state of consciousness…
Our psyches, which contain all our knowledge, expand periodically into… (transcendent) space for a very short period of time at practically infinite velocities. There the human psyches form an interference pattern with the psyches of all other consciousnesses in the universe.
This interference pattern or hologram of knowledge information we can call the “universal mind.” The knowledge in the universal mind is open to anyone who can extend his stay there by stretching out his subjective time while there so as to gain useful information and decipher it upon his return.
Matter contains/is consciousness. Our planet is therefore a larger consciousness, and so is the sun. A rudimentary consciousness contained in matter and in living cells maintains the life of the body. A higher consciousness, the human psyche, inhabits that body most of the time but is independent of it. The planet and the sun have also a “permanent resident” consciousness and a higher consciousness/intelligence using it as a focus or a garage.
All these consciousnesses communicate with each other and make up part of the information hologram. Communication throughout the universe is continuous and instantaneous.

Itzhak Bentov. (1988) Stalking the Wild Pendulum: 157-158.

Many (perhaps most) individuals in the modern Western world reading these words of Itzhak Bentov would dismiss them as nonsensical, the product of delusion or insanity. Cognitive scientists such as Persinger (2001) and Greenfield (BBC TV, 2001) would most likely reduce Bentov’s perceptions to temporal lobe anomalies, or the hallucinations of the vestigial “bicameral mind” (Jaynes, 1990). They would be even more incredulous if they knew that Bentov was a man “without much formal education.” (Bentov, 1988: preface) Rather, he was an “intuitive inventor” who liked to “tinker about in his versatile basement laboratory seeking simple and practical solutions to complex technological problems.” (ibid.) Instead of employing the empirical and reductionist methods of science, his understandings evolved after “his intuition led him into the regular practice of meditation.” (ibid. Italics added) His “research” was predicated upon “the design of experimental journeys into the microcosm and macrocosm of the universe.” (ibid.)
Yet these few paragraphs of Bentov’s have been chosen here because they effectively represent the conceptions of consciousness and intelligence - and a primary way of knowing - held by numerous civilisations throughout the history and across the geography of humanity; a way of knowing and a consciousness that shall be referred to here as “integrated intelligence.” Integrated intelligence, as will be outlined below, is the state of personal consciousness whereby individual awareness is infused with a transpersonal awareness that transcends the confines of the individual mind, and the limits of the sensory organs.
A crucial aspect of Bentov’s claim is the fact that his way of knowing involves the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness, something that is also consistent with various non-western and non-contemporary civilisational ways of knowing, and central to the idea of integrated intelligence. (Braud, 1998: 64, 76; Grof, 2000) Western mainstream science is founded upon one of the few epistemologies that rejects the idea of the integration of consciousness and intelligence with cosmos. (Dossey, 2001; Grof, 1985, 2000; Sheldrake, 2003) The implications are enormous. For as White (1998) notes in regard to “exceptional human experiences” (EHEs): Note: White (1998) defines EHEs as “psychic, mystical, death-related, and strange encounter experiences that raise eyebrows.” (White, 1998: 129) Within this thesis this definition will be retained. “Human intelligence functions best when it is actively open to many possibilities not considered to exist according to western consensus reality.” (White, 1998: 134)
The other key issue here is education, which will comprise an important focus of this thesis. If Bentov’s claimed ability is true, then it leads to the question of why a relatively uneducated man was able to achieve such “extraordinary” (in terms of the western episteme) abilities. The second question to logically derive from this is why highly educated people in western “developed” nations, including those who have gained higher degrees such as masters and PhDs, not only generally do not exhibit such abilities as Bentov’s claimed capacities, they generally have no experience or “training” in integrated intelligence, despite up to twenty years in public and/or private education.
Yet it is important to note that the purpose of this thesis is not to prove or disprove the existence of consciousness as integrated beyond, or localised within individual brains. Rather it is to juxtapose, compare and contrast these two seemingly opposing views of consciousness and reality. The goal is to glean from that juxtaposition a deeper understanding of the dominant discourses on consciousness and intelligence within contemporary society, science, and education via elucidating the power plays that underpin their conceptualisations, representations and ways of knowing.

1.1.2 The research topic and key questions
The prime research topic of this thesis contains two prime facets: the comparison and contrast of integrated and fragmented representations of intelligence including the typical exclusion of integrated intelligence from representations of intelligence, and educational curricula in the present era; and the current educational implications of this. The primary question is thus: how do classical and modern scientific representations of intelligence differ in respect to their depiction of the transpersonal integration of intelligence, or lack thereof, and what are the implications of this for modern education?
This thesis therefore examines theories of intelligence and coscniousness in the scientific era, in respect to the way in which they represent (or exclude) integrated intelligence. The prime research question is designed to identify the way rational, linguistic and brain-based definitions of consciousness have come to dominate consciousness and intelligence discourse and research at the expense of integrated and spiritual depictions.
There are several essential questions which derive from this prime question, and which will constitute the broader focus of the thesis. They are listed here, along with the chapters of this thesis which specifically deal with them

1. What is integrated intelligence? (chapter one)
2. In what ways does integrated intelligence differ from commonly held contemporary definitions and assumptions about consciousness and intelligence? (chapter one)
2. Why has the concept of an integrated intelligence been largely neglected in modern scientific discourse? (chapter three)
3. How have rational and linguistic definitions of consciousness and intelligence dominated research and discourse within these fields? (chapters two, and three)
4. How is integrated intelligence depicted (or excluded) in contemporary, scientific representations of consciousness and intelligence? (chapters four and five)
5. In which eras and civilisations has integrated intelligence been represented, and what form did/does it take? (chapters one, two and three)
6. How has the focus upon rational linguistic and mathematical forms of intelligence (and the exclusion of integrated intelligence) affected contemporary schooling and education? (chapter six)
7. What are the possible implications of incorporating integrated intelligence into modern educational practice? (chapter six)
8. What are possible sites for the employment of integrated intelligence in education (for example the university, alternative universities, schooling, and others)? (chapter six and conclusion)

1.2.1 Definitions and important distinctions
The term “integrated intelligence” as used in this research is taken to refer to non-localised and transpersonal intelligence/consciousness. It refers to the integration of individualised brain-based intelligence with universal or cosmic intelligence. As Dossey (2002) writes:

The idea that the human mind is infinite or nonlocal - that at some level it cannot be confined to specific points in space, such as the brain and body, or in time, such as the present, is ancient. (Dossey, 2001: http://www.stephanaschwartz.com/distant_healing_biblio.htm)

Integrated intelligence has most commonly been depicted in traditional, ancient, spiritual and mystical texts, such as the Chinese Taoists and Confucians (Bishop, 1995; Jiyu, 1998); Greeks (Brumbaugh, 1981; Sheldrake, 2005a, 2005b); Romans and Egyptians (Dossey, 2002; Grof, 1985); the Indian episteme (Auribindo, 1985; Inayatullah, 2002b; Nisargadatta, 2001; Yogananda, 1979); shamanism, animism and indigenous cultures. (Clarke, 1989; Murinbata & Whitehead, 2002; Osumi & Ritchie, 1988; Walsh, 1990; Wildman, 1996) Most commonly it is associated with spiritual experiences, or depicted within texts related to personal and spiritual development. The connection with mystical experience is an essential one. As pointed out by Leonard George, since the 1600s mystical experiences have been “characterized by the feeling that… everything forms a unity”. (quoted in White, 1998: 132)
Although integrated intelligence is virtually absent from contemporary secular education (note, As will be argued in chapter three, Christian theology tends to be rationally and textually orientated and generally lacks the transpersonal element and utilisation of non-ordinary states of consciousness that are key aspects of integrated intelligence. Traditional religious education in public and private schools in western nations is primarily Christian in denomination, and does not encourage mystical experience and, by implication, integrated intelligence.) and mainstream intelligence and consciousness discourse within the dominant mechanistic paradigm, (Note: Kuhn (1970) introduced the idea that all knowledge (including scientific knowledge) is premised upon specific paradigms. (Kuhn 1970) Inayatullah defines paradigms as “internal rules of how we see others, the world and nature.” (Inayatullah, 2002a: 206) Sardar writes that a paradigm is “a way of looking at things: a set of shared assumptions, beliefs, dogmas, conventions, theories.” (Sardar 2000: 73) Thinkers and theorists embedded within established paradigms most often fail to acknowledge or even see emerging paradigms. Often they resist new paradigms when they emerge. (Inayatullah 2002: 206) The term “worldview” is interchangeable with paradigm, as used in this thesis. The term “discourse” refers to the debates and discussions that occur within a particular field, discipline or subject matter.)
it is nonetheless a widely posited conception and experience across a plethora of disciplines, discourses, civilisations and worldviews in the present day. Some of the most notable include spiritual healing and new age texts (Dobie, 2002; Myss, 2001; Newton, 2000; Weiss, 1985; Wilde, 2001; Woolger, 1994); UFO phenomena (Mack, 1999); tales of the supernatural (Ritchie, 1992); neo-humanism (Bussey, 2004; Inayatullah, 2002a;); Jungian psychology (Jung, 1973, 1989); transpersonal and humanistic psychology (Broad, 1998; Ferrer, 2002; Grof, 1985, 1992, 1994, 1995, 2000; Hart et al., 2000; Ross, 1993; Walsh & Vaughan, 1993; Wilber, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2001); parapsychology (Schlitz, 2001; Sheldrake & Smart, 2003; Targ & Katra, 1999, 2001; Tart, 1993, 2001, 2002); deep ecology (Couzyn, 1995; Eisler, 2004; Sahtouris, 1999); quantum physics and systems theory (Bradley, 2004; Capra, 2000; Fox & Sheldrake, 1996; Peat, 1988; Sheldrake et al., 2001; Folger, 2002); consciousness theory (Marshal, 1989; Penrose, 1990); cardio-psychology (Pearsall, 1999; Walker, 1988). It is also a common theme and experience in popular songs, science fiction, general literature, movies, fairy tales and fantasy of numerous kinds. Perhaps its most widely known popular depiction is in the phenomenally successful Star Wars films, where the concept of “The Force” was taken directly from the Taoist concept of the Tao. (Ross, 1993)
Depictions of integrated intelligence vary somewhat within these texts, and nowhere is it explicitly referred to by the term “integrated intelligence.” Note: Krishnamurti (1956) does employ this term, but not in the same sense as it is used in this thesis. His idea of “integrated intelligence” is one in which the mind is broadened by an educational system which incorporates spiritual, mystical and important moral and philosophical domains to its curriculum. Although it can be said to incorporate integrated intelligence (as defined in this thesis) is not specifically about the integration of personal and transpersonal awareness. Indeed innumerable terms are employed, all of which incorporate integrated intelligence to greater or lesser degrees. For example, Lao Tzu’s “Tao” grants one a kind of transcendent perception where: “Without stirring out of the house, one can know everything in the world.” (Zhengkun, 1995: 201) Sheldrake and Smart (2003) refer to “telepathy” within a more rigorous parapsychological methodology, manifesting as the ability to know who is calling before one picks up the phone. Wildman (1996) refers to “The Dreaming” of the Australian Aborigines, which includes assumed telepathic potentials between individuals and perception of the spirit of places. Futurist Slaughter (1999) touches upon concepts such as “subtle awareness”, “causal insight”, “ultimate identity with the source”, “psychic intuition”, “superconsciousness” and “transcendent knowledge”. (Slaughter, 1999: 332-33) Zohar (2000) defines “spiritual intelligence” as “an internal, innate ability of the human brain and psyche, drawing its deepest resources from the heart of the universe itself.” (Zohar, 2000: 9) Meanwhile, physicist Peat (1988) refers to synchronicity as “the bridge between mind and matter”.
Integrated intelligence differs from most contemporary mechanistic depictions of intelligence and consciousness in that it is “non-localised” (Dossey, 2000, 2001) (moving beyond purely brain-based models of consciousness), transcends linear conceptions of time (Dossey, 2001; Grof, 2000; Nelson, 2000; Targ & Katra, 2001), and acknowledges sources of inspiration and knowledge that are transpersonal and spiritual. It implies that the brain is a permeable organ imbedded within a sea of consciousness. It inverts the western myth of materialism (Davies & Gribbin, 1992) which depicts consciousness as epiphenomena, an accidental bi-product of random evolutionary forces. (Grof, 1985, 2000) As transpersonal researcher Stan Grof (1995) states:

It has become increasingly clear that consciousness is not a product of the physiological processes in the brain, but a primary attribute of existence. The universe is imbued with creative intelligence and consciousness is inextricably woven into its fabric. (Grof, 1995: page)
Duane Elgin mirrors Grof’s point, and adds a dimension that is an essential component of this thesis: the potential of integrated intelligence to transform the human experience:

…consciousness appears to be present at every level of the universe, from the atomic scale (and the behavior of electrons that seem to have a mind of their own) on up through the human scale. So the universe has the properties of a living system; life exists within life. This is an amazing miracle, and as we discover this, I think that it is going to begin to shift who we think we are and what we think our life-journey is about. It's transformative. The idea and the experience of a living universe is a powerful recontextualization of who we think we are and where we think we're going. (quoted in Phipps, http://www.wie.org/j19/elgin.asp?page=3)
Thus integrated intelligence is most closely akin to what is referred to as the proto-consciousness view, the idea that consciousness is present in all things to greater or lesser degree. (Zohar, 2000)
Integrated intelligence, as defined in this thesis, comprises two distinct domains. The first is higher order perceptions of wholeness and integration, what Wilber calls the subtle, causal, and non-dual aspects of consciousness. (Wilber 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2001) For the purposes of this research, this shall be referred to as “domain one integrated intelligence.” It is the direct experience or perception of the integrated nature of the universe and consciousness. The second is various “paranormal” perceptual phenomena such as ESP, clairvoyance, and visionary experience; what is popularly referred to as the “psychic” realm. (Wilber, 2000c; Wilde, 2001; Targ & Katra, 2001; Jacobson, 1997) This shall be referred to as “domain two integrated intelligence.” Domain two integrated intelligence approximates the numinous realm. These phenomena suggest the plausibility of non-localised, integrated consciousness.
Both domain one integrated intelligence and domain two integrated intelligence are considered aspects of mystical and spiritual experience, however different approaches and philosophies valorise them to different degrees. For example, Buddhist texts tend to downplay domain two integrated intelligence phenomena, whilst valorising domain one integrated intelligence experience, particularly the experience of enlightenment or nondual consciousness. (Jacobson 1991, 1997; Nisker 1998) Conversely a plethora of popular and new age texts valorise and sometimes glamorise domain two integrated intelligence. Examples of these are Kubler-Ross (1997), Redfield (1997) and Wilde (2001).

1.2.2 Two problematics: Uncertain epistemology and nebulous definitions
The lack of clear definitions and distinctions is a highly problematical aspect of the fields which incorporate integrated intelligence, as is the uncertain epistemological foundations. Dossey (2002), whilst himself preferring the term “distant non-local awareness” points out that the lack of an agreed upon terminology represents a tremendous obstacle in the field of alternative healing methods. This is a field heavily imbued with references to integrated intelligence, and thus Dossey’s point is also relevant to research and writing which deals with notions of an integrated intelligence in general. Ferrer (2002) identifies similar problems in regard to the entire field of transpersonal studies. Ferrer finds that transpersonal knowledge has “lacked an adequate epistemology”, and that this has been “deeply detrimental for the legitimization of spirituality in academic and social milieus.” (Ferrer, 2002: 10) He points out that there is a lack of criteria for determining what valid transpersonal knowledge actually is. This has rendered transpersonal theory “a free-for-all open to any form of metaphysical speculation.” (ibid.) He accuses “most transpersonal authors” of “working upon unexamined and outdated objectivist epistemological assumptions”. (ibid.) Ultimately Ferrer finds the objectivist claims and “inner empiricism” (ibid.: 2) of transpersonalists such as Wilber untenable, problematic and ultimately self-limiting. Ferrer posits an alternative: a “participatory vision” where there is no ultimate objective ground of being, but a diversity of spiritual paths not dependent upon hierarchies.
Thus the discourses involving integrated intelligence do not deliver a clearly-defined representation of the idea, scattered as it is across history, religions, continents, intellectual and spiritual discourses, epistemes and worldviews. There are numerous discrepancies regarding definitions, methods, language and religious/spiritual interpretations. Yet the totality of these far-flung discourses point to an intelligence that is consistent with the original definition given above. It is an area that deserves closer scrutiny, as evidenced by its increased presence in such a diversity of contemporary and pre-modern discourses.

1.2.3 Further distinctions
The term “integrated intelligence” is being developed here to clearly distinguish it, and avoid confusion with certain terms used within other texts that may cover similar or related ground. The second significant process is to situate it more deliberately within contemporary discourse on intelligence, something that is absent from the literature.
The primary foci in the literature include: the empirical evidence for psi phenomena and the paranormal (Kennedy, 2003; Loye, 1982; Raden, 1997; Ritchie, 1992; Tart, 2002); how it works (Dossey, 2002; Steinkamp, 2002); ways of knowing (Broomfield, 1997; Forbes, 2003; Smith, 1995); epistemological issues and civilisational differences in knowledge (Capra, 2000; Ferrer, 2002, Inayatullah, 2002a, 2002b; Zingrone, 1999); practical applications of the psychic abilities (Targ & Katra, 1999; Wilde, 2001); and spiritual and consciousness evolution (Bausch and Christakis, 2004; Eisler, 2004; Gebser, 1985; Grof, 1995; Hawkins, 2002; Hollinshead, 2002; Goerner, 2004; Loye, 2004; Wilber, 1999, 2000c) amongst others. However, there is little attempt in the literature to conceptualise transpersonal and psychic capacities in terms of their relationship with intelligence. The closest attempts involve the juxtaposition of intuitive intelligence with rational and logical intelligences, as is the case with Gardner’s (1993) multiple intelligences, de Bono’s (1999) six thinking hats, Goleman’s (1995, 1999) emotional intelligence and Klein’s (2003) “intuition”. Yet the tendency in these texts is to define intuitive intelligence in mundane terms (as inferential intuition) as will be defined below.

Related concepts
Several relevant concepts are closely related to the idea of integrated intelligence, yet these differ in various ways. Below, these have been divided into several categories: enlightenment experiences; non-local mind; extrasensory perception; planetary mind; inferential intuition; classical intuition/psychic abilities; exceptional human experiences; revelation; spiritual intelligence; other ways of knowing; and other related concepts and phenomena. A definition is provided for each - either my own, or taken from sources within the literature. Note: The distinctions amongst these will be further elaborated in chapter two

Enlightenment experiences.
These involve the “state of consciousness or enlightenment (where) people experience themselves in the utmost depths of their psyche as being one with God” (Smith, 1995: 406-407) or some translogical cosmic essence. Examples include: “enlightenment” (Smith, 1995); “cosmic consciousness” (Bucke, 1991; Kubler-Ross, 1997; Moffett, 1994: 11; Smith, 1995); “Oneness” and “Pure Consciousness” (Jacobson, 1997, 1999: 35); “self-realization” (Nisker, 1998: 212-214); “subtle”, “causal” and “non-dual” consciousness (Wilber, 2000c); “ultimate identity with the source”, and “superconsciousness” (Slaughter, 1999: 332-33); “universal consciousness” (Kafatos & Kafatou, 1991); “unity consciousness” (Friedman, n.d); and “transcendent states” (Boorstein, 2000).

Non-local mind
This is the experience or conceptualisation of mind as extending from the boundaries of self, and interacting with people, spiritual entities, “objects” or information in an extra-sensory capacity, regardless of whether the perceived phenomena are in an immediate locale, or distant. Examples include: “nonlocal consciousness” (Targ & Katra, 1999); “distant non-local awareness” (Dossey, 1993, 2000a); “the holotropic mind” (Grof, 1992, 2000); the “holographic brain” (Bradley, 2004; Pribram & Bradley, 1998); “the universal mind” (Bentov, 1988) “open thinking” (Liberman, 1995); “group consciousness” (Krippner, 1992); “connection with the source/Divine” (Mack, 1999: 292-293); “intrasubjective experiences” and “participatory events” (Ferrer, 2002: 2); the “collective unconscious”: (Broomfield, 1997; Jung, 1989); “telesomatic connections” and “cardio-energetics” (Pearsall, 1999); “ the ultimate alignment of individual and cosmic good” (Bussey, 2004: 84); “being cognition” (Maslow, 1971); and “boundless mind” (Schlitz, 2001).

Planetary mind
Within the terms of this thesis, this is the conception that the Earth itself is conscious in some form, and that there is a process of communication or knowledge transference (potential or extant) between this consciousness and individuals living/existing on the Earth. This also includes both human and animal, individual and collective entities (such as human or animal collective minds), ecosystems and systems in general.
Examples include the concepts of: “global brain” (Bloom, 2000); “Gaia” (Couzyn, 1995; Lovelock, 1979; Sahtouris, 1999) Note: Maddox (1999) heavily criticises the misrepresentation of Lovelock’s initial hypothesis, which he points out does not suggest that the earth has "mystically, a life of its own". (Maddox, 1999: 348). Thus a distinction is required by those researchers who conform to Lovelock’s initial hypothesis, and those who take it and add mystical components.; and “nature as alive, self-organizing, intelligent, conscious or sentient and participatory at all levels.” (Sahtouris, 1999: http://www.scottlondon.com/insight/scripts/sahtouris.html)

Extrasensory perception
Here the focus is restricted to just one of the two primary components of “psychic experiences” as defined by White (1998) - extrasensory perception; namely ESP, clairvoyance, telepathy, and precognition; but excluding psychokinesis, or being able to influence objects and organisms without touching them. (White, 1998: 132) The latter is excluded, simply because it pertains to a phenomenon beyond the scope of this thesis.
Examples include: “extrasensory perception” (Wallace, 2003: 185); “telepathy” and “ESP” (Sheldrake and Smart, 2003 ); “distant intentionality” (Dossey, 1999, 2001, 2002); “psi” experiences (Batcheldor, 1994; Kennedy, 2003); “ESP” (Henley, 2002: 289); and “transpersonal knowing” (Ferrer, 2002: 10).

Exceptional human experiences
Exceptional human experiences are “psychic, mystical, death-related, and strange encounter experiences that raise eyebrows.” (White, 1998: 129) This is a broad term which has come into use in the literature in recent years. It incorporates many of the mystical, psychic and spiritual experiences referred to under the other categories in this section. Examples include White (1998); and Kennedy (2003).

Revelation
This is the process of an individual receiving spiritually meaningful information from divine sources (God, angels, spirit guides etc.). Examples include: “revelation” Dobie, 2002; and “theophany” Fox and Sheldrake (1996: 51).

Spiritual intelligence
This is term that has come into popular literature in recent years. According to Zohar (2000) spiritual intelligence is “an internal, innate ability of the human brain and psyche, drawing its deepest resources from the heart of the universe itself.” (Zohar. 2000: 9) Examples include: Levin, (2000); and Zohar, (2000).

Inferential-intuition
This is mundane intuition, where the sources of intuitive knowledge are represented as coming from the unconscious mind and sensory sources, not from extra-sensory or metaphysical realms. Examples include: “intuition” (Klein, 2004; Myers, 2004; Senge, 1994) Note: Myers primarily constructs intuition as a form of tacit learning, However he acknowledges that “psychic” capacities exist, but remains skeptical and uncommitted about their potential. “intuitive intelligence” (Torff and Sternberg, 2001); “primary intuitive conceptions” (Torff and Sternberg, 2001; Ben-Zeev and Star, 2001); “tacit learning” (Hogarth, 2001); “intrapersonal intelligence” (Gardner, 1993; Gardner et al. , 1996); “red hat thinking” (de Bono, 1999). (Note: de Bono, Gardner, and Gardner et al. all lump intuitive and emotional intelligences together in their respective schemas, which is why they also appear under “emotional intelligence”)

Classical intuition/psychic awareness
This representation of intuition incorporates sources of intuitive knowledge that incorporate transcendent, extra-sensory and metaphysical dimensions. Examples include: “intuition” (Fox & Sheldrake, 1996; Rowan, 1986); “intuitive awareness” and “intuitive inquiry” (Braud, 1998: 75); “the sixth sense ” (Wilde, 2001); “psychic abilities” (Targ & Katra, 1999); and “perfect insight” and “intense knowledge” (Cleary, 1999: x-xi). (Note: when “intuition” is used within this thesis, it will be used in the classicist sense, comprising metaphysical and transcendent potentials, unless otherwise stated)

Other ways of knowing
These are ways of knowing, of enquiry, that move beyond the normal or accepted ways of knowing in western society and civilisation. As employed within this thesis, they incorporate spiritual and metaphysical components. Examples include: “other ways of knowing” (Broomfield, 1997; Forbes, 2003); “shamanistic, participative science” (Varvoglis); and “relatio” or “relationship knowledge” (Wildman, 1996).

Emotional intelligence
This entails being able to identify master one’s own emotions, as well as manage other people’s emotions effectively. As employed in this thesis, the definition of emotional intelligence does not incorporate integrated intelligence, but can be seen to include a type of inferential intuition. (Note: Basing his definition on the research of one of the original theorists (Salovey), Golemen finds that emotional intelligence incorporates such skills as knowing one’s emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others and handling relationships. (Goleman, 1995: 46-47) These include: “emotional intelligence” (Goleman, 1995, 1999; Israel et al., 2000; Salovey et al., 2004); “red hat thinking” (de Bono, 1999); and “emotional knowing”. (Friedman, 2005)

Other related conceptions: non-algorithmic and non-linear cognition
These are a diversity of conceptions which incorporate expansive notions of rationality but do not move into the metaphysical or transcendent realms. Thus they are still categorized under fragmented knowledge within this thesis. These will be referred to at times within this thesis. Examples include: “fuzzy logic” (Kosko, 1994); “lateral thinking” (de Bono, 1999); “quantum logic” (Clarke, 1995); “non-algorithmic thinking” (Penrose, 1990); “collective intelligence” (Avis, 2002; Dewey, 1937; Nash, 2005; Szuba, 2002).
The author’s of these expanded conceptions of rationality each critique standard conceptions of rationality as self-limiting. Kosko (1994) and de Bono (1999) develop critiques of dominant western civilisational ways of knowing, while Nash (2005) identifies the self-limiting constriction that rampant individualism has placed upon the idea of intelligence; the latter of which he finds identifies too much with individual thinking apart from group/collective perspectives. Notably all these proponents’ expansive representations of rationality differ from integrated intelligence in that all of them fail to challenge the dominant localised conception of consciousness inherent in modern dominant discourses, and essentially remain bound by the mechanistic paradigm in which their theories are embedded.

Agency and integrated intelligence
The conception of a universal mind/ intelligence and/or agency, either transcendent and/or immanent, personal and/or impersonal, is commonly depicted in texts which incorporate integrated intelligence. This will be further discussed in chapter two of this thesis, while the essential relevant conceptions and definitions will be stated here. Typically integrated intelligence is seen as dynamically operating as part of this larger system/intelligence. It is a “participatory” system (Wheeler, 1983) year where the whole sends messages to the parts. (Broomfield, 1997) We thus see a group of terms which attempt to make sense of this intelligence, such as the following:

l “The holographic mind/universe”. (Bradley, 2004; Pribram, 1991; Talbot, 1992). This theory, originally developed by neurophysiologist Karl Pribram depicts a cosmos predicated upon holistic principles where the part contains the whole, and the overriding metaphor is the hologram.
l The “Kosmos” (Wilber, 2000c). This is Wilber’s particular term for a representation of the cosmos which incorporates all four quadrants of his Integral Theory, including consciousness. It embraces the cosmological intelligence of the Buddhist tradition.
l “The implicate order” (Bohm, 1973). Bohm’s term for a subtle generative order within the universe; the implicit, hidden dimensions of the cosmos which lay behind the explicate or observable order.
l “The conscious universe”. Here the universe is seen as having an overriding intelligence and teleological propensities. This includes: “the conscious universe” Kafatos & Nadeau, (2000); Raden, (1997); also Elgin’s “living universe” (quoted in Phipps, 2004).
l Field theories of transpersonal consciousness, including: “morphogenetic fields” (Sheldrake, 1981, 1988, 2003); “the socioaffective field” and “collective agency” (Bradley, 2004); consciousness “attractor fields” (Hawkins, 2002); and “fields of consciousness” (Tiller et al., 2001). All these theorists posit various field theories, drawing heavily upon systems theory to explicate the interaction of consciousness and matter in the universe, and the workings of the universe as whole.
l God or divine intelligence/guidance. These theorists employ the word “God” or “agency” in an impersonal sense, using it to describe the teleological and intelligent properties of the greater cosmos, suggesting that an overriding consciousness is responsible for cosmic and human evolution. They include: “God” (Aldworth, 2001; Russell, 2004); also “spiritual higher power” and “the creator” (Newton: 2000: 122); “the Creator” (Bentov, 1988 ); the “Divine Ground of Being” (Ross, 1993: 9, 294); and “agentic capacities” (Coole, 2005).
l Cosmic consciousness. The term, as employed by these thinkers, differs from the way used above, under “enlightenment experiences”. Here it is not a perceptual experience, but a descriptive term for a universal guiding intelligence. This includes “cosmic consciousness” Sheldrake et al., (2001); also Sarkar’s “Supreme Consciousness” as discussed in Gauthier, (1999); and Inayatullah, (2002b;).
l Co-evolution, including: “intelligent design”. These are post-Darwinian conceptions of evolution which incorporate a teleological, transpersonal and/or participative component. They including “intelligent design” Bloom, (2001); the “participatory universe” (Eisler, 2004; Folger, 2002; Wheeler, 1983); and “dynamic evolution” (Goerner, 2004).
l Synchronicty. Here synchronicity refers to meaningful coincidences which represent an interface between human experience and a greater universal intelligence. Usually, as with Jung’s (1973) original theory, the full comprehension of the process is beyond human cognition, although the synchronicity’s “meaning” may be intuited. These include Dossey, (2000, 2002b); Hawkins (2002); Jung (1973; 1989 ); Peat (1988); Redfield (1997); Storm (1999); and Wilde (2001).

The conception of an overriding agency brings to bear the entire question of agency in history and evolution, another crucial aspect of this thesis. The concept of various kinds of collective consciousness adds to the complexity of theories of integrated consciousness.

Summary
This variety of terms associated with integrated intelligence are often employed in different ways by different thinkers, and are often vague and are easily confused with other cognitive processes. At other times, although ostensibly similar to integrated intelligence, they may mean quite different things. However, as used in this thesis, the meanings will correspond with the categories identified above, except where there is a reference given to a usage as given by a particular theorist. The distinctions amongst these terms will be explored more fully in the research to come, especially in chapter two.

1.2.4 A brief history of integrated intelligence and its contemporary relevance
Classical depictions of intelligence typically posit the existence of integrated intelligence. Indigenous and native mythology is heavily imbued with concepts of deific, revelatory and transpersonal consciousness. The ancient Greek, Roman and Egyptian cultures held strong beliefs about deific intervention, revelation, and prophecy. Mystical traditions such as Buddhism, Tantra, Taoism and Sufism contain strong transpersonal elements and imagery, and their depictions of intelligence contain strongly non-localised elements. Indigenous cultures throughout the world feature shamanic traditions, ancestral worship, and mythologies which all contain elements of a non-localised intelligence. (Groff, 1994; Pearsall, 1999)
Contemporary science, in wake of the enlightenment has tended to avoid the issue of consciousness altogether, instead focusing upon readily measurable aspects of cognition such as neurophysiology and behavior. (Dossey, 2002; Grof, 1992; Penrose, 1990; Ross, 1993; Sheldrake, 1981; Wilber, 2000c)
The issue of an integrated, non-localised intelligence has become increasingly significant in recent decades, coinciding with an increased attention paid by the scientific community to the concept of consciousness. A greater number of scientists, philosophers and thinkers are questioning strictly neurophysiological interpretations of intelligence and discussing the validity of expanded cognitive capacities which defy localised models of consciousness. (Blackmore 2001; Dossey, 1999, 2001; Hawkins, 2002; Penrose, 1990; Raden 1997; Sheldrake, 2003; Tart 1993, 2001) Prior to this shift in focus, the nature of intelligence and its function as a neurobiological epiphenomenon of evolutionary biology, was assumed to be a given. This shift has occurred parallel to, and also within a strong postmodernist critique of modernist science. Strong debate continues to occur within scientific circles as to the way in which quantum principles of non-locality impinge upon traditional scientific models of the universe and this has spilled over into the field of intelligence theory (Penrose, 1990; Hawkins, 2002; Wilber, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c; Zohar, 2000). Meanwhile speculators, philosophers and writers of popular science and spirituality have taken the arguments to new dimensions (Bentov, 1988; Capra 2000; Friedman, 2005; Talbot, 1992; Zohar, 2000). Further, contemporary mystics and many of those within various spiritual modalities are continuing to insist that integrated intelligence exists, and indeed is vital to personal and spiritual development. (Fox and Sheldrake, 1996; Nisker, 1998; Pearsall, 1999; Redfield, 1997; Wilde, 2001)

1.3.1 Contextualising the thesis
What is the problem and why is the research needed?
Current mainstream educational practice, following the dominant scientific discourse, assumes a narrow definition of intelligence and consciousness. Rational, linguistic and mathematical depictions of intelligence currently predominate (Gardner, 1993; Shearer, 2004). In line with this, neurophysiology and developmental, social, and cognitive psychology prevail in modern psychology and consciousness theory. Cognitive psychology has become a handmaiden to neuroscience. (Maddox, 1999) Recently genetics and genetic psychology have also gained prominence. (Loye, 2004a). Of the significant contemporary schools of psychology, only transpersonal and humanistic psychology, positive psychology and parapsychology have touched upon the idea of an integrated intelligence (Loye, 2004a; Wilber, 2000b), and these schools have not been embraced by many mainstream thinkers. In recent years information theory, artificial intelligence theory, cybergenetics, and evolutionary biology have also delved into consciousness theory (Kaku, 1997) but these fields have mostly remained grounded in standard reductionist models of consciousness.
This situation restricts the potential development of a truly holistic and integrated curriculum in schools and universities. Amongst educators, IQ theory is seen as problematic, but has been replaced in teachers’ minds by the effective synonym of “ability”, which mirrors the concept of “g”, or a domain-general intelligence predicated on the presupposition that logical, linguistic and mathematical acuity is the basis of intelligence. (Nash, 2005) Generally stated, the neglected domains are the development of the “intrapersonal” (Gardner, 1993) and spiritual components of education (Broomfield, 1997; Krishnamurti, 1956; Moffett, 1994). Integrated intelligence implies an alternative way of knowing – through introspection, through contemplation, and through “receptive” modes of consciousness. (Fox & Sheldrake, 1996; Wilber, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c; Moffett, 1994; Liberman, 1995) Moffett (1994) argues that the lack of a spiritual component in contemporary education is severely damaging the young and the greater society. He suggests that spiritual education will be highly beneficial in the long run, as a more stable, self-aware and wholly developed population will create a more peaceful, moral and harmonious society.
On a broader scale, Various critics are suggesting that humanity is on the verge of a shift, or potential shift in consciousness. (Grof, 2000; Ferguson, 1986; Hawkins, 2002; Moffett, 1994; Sahtouris, 1999; Wilber, 2001) Duane Elgin writes that:

…there is a whole shift in mind-set now occurring. In the United States, for example, a conservative estimate is that about ten per cent of the American adult population, or twenty million people, are making a shift on the inside toward a more experiential spirituality and on the outside toward a more ecological approach to life. Taken together, these could transform the adversity trends into a great opportunity. (quoted in Phipps, 2004: http://www.wie.org/ji9/elgin.asp)
If such critics are correct, the near future may be the perfect time to consider the relevance of spiritual and integrated intelligence in our science, our education, and our lives. Elgin states further that the increasing awareness of a “conscious” universe has vital implications for humanity.

This is an amazing miracle, and as we discover this, I think that it is going to begin to shift who we think we are and what we think our life-journey is about. It's transformative. The idea and the experience of a living universe is a powerful recontextualization of who we think we are and where we think we're going. (ibid.)

Personal, social and planetary transformation and healing is a seminal theme throughout a plethora of texts that posit an integrated representation of intelligence.
The significance of the research
Alternative educational methodologies such as the Steiner, Montessori and Krishnamurti schools all acknowledge the role of intuitive, inspirational and integrated intelligence in the development of the child. (Bussey, 2003; Krishnamurti, 1956; Steiner, 1970) Various non-western spiritual education and training practices also have emphasised integrated intelligence, such as those of the Australian Aborigines, eastern spiritual traditions, and shamanic initiations (Broomfield, 1997; Lawler, 1991; Wilber, 2000c; Wildman, 1996). The paradigms upon which such education is predicated acknowledge the existence of “non-localised” agency within the experience of intuition and inspiration. This most commonly includes concepts such as revelation, spirit guides and angels, and telepathic transfer of knowledge between people and the land or nature. (Grof, 1995; Wildman, 1996; Broomfield, 1997; Pearsall, 1999)
Within mainstream public and private education the debate has barely begun. Though more radical thinkers such as, Beare & Slaughter (1993), Broomfield (1997), Carter and Smith (2003), Forbes (2003), Fromberg (2001), Gardner (1993), Krishnamurti (1956), Hogarth (2001), Moffett (1994), and Steiner (1970) have openly criticised educational theory and practice for its narrow constructs of what comprises consciousness and/or intelligence, few are entering the debate as yet with any conviction. While in recent decades concepts which touch upon the idea of intuitive knowledge - such as multiple intelligences (Gardner 1993), six thinking hats (de Bono, 1999), emotional intelligence Goleman (1995, 1999) and have become well known in educational circles, these theorists have represented intuition as inferential, downplayed any spiritual or mystical components, and confined the discourse firmly within respected traditional scientific models of intelligence and consciousness. Literature that refers to other ways of knowing and intuitive intelligence lacks a framework that allows for the genuine incorporation of integrated intelligence into its methodology. This may to some degree reflect Ferrer’s (2002) finding that a lack of a clear epistemology in transpersonal studies has severely hindered its broader acceptance in science and society in general.
Greater research into integrated intelligence will potentially deliver an expanded framework for its theory, and thus for its possible place in educational practice of the future. While integrated intelligence remains unexplored and unrecognised and its epistemology vague and ungrounded, there is little hope that most educational institutions will acknowledge it. Thus any potential benefit of an expanded curriculum will remain unrealised.

1.3.2 Intelligence theory and integrated intelligence
The exclusion of integrated intelligence from mainstream intelligence theory
Jensen sees intelligence as being highly correlated with the concept of IQ, especially in terms of the latter’s reliance upon deductive and inductive reasoning, spatial visualisation, quantitative reasoning, and verbal knowledge and reasoning. (Jensen, 1998: 89). Piaget (1977) and similar developmental psychologists see intelligence as initiating at the sensorimotor and preconceptual modes, with the rational domains such as the formal operational seen as the zenith of consciousness development. Such models depend heavily upon, reasoning, memory, language and moral judgment. (Trombley & Bullock, 1999) The behaviorists such as Skinner (1971) and Hull (1981) tended to ignore consciousness altogether, instead focusing upon observable behaviour. (Ross, 1993)
Many texts link intelligence and consciousness to biological processes and tend to posit it either explicitly or implicitly as a mechanistic epiphenomenon of evolutionary processes. Examples of this include academic researchers such as Spearman (1973), Binet (2002); and popular science writers such as Bryson (2003), and Dawkins (1976); and the neo-Darwinian geneticists, as indicated by Loye (2004a).
Even many theorists who expand their conceptions of intelligence beyond the limitations of g and its mathematical/logical presuppositions (Gardner, 1993; Shearer, 2004) merely posit further extrapolations on the localised and fragmented mind by adding further horizontal dimensions such as emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995, 1999; Salovey et al., 2004), lateral thinking (de Bono, 1999), collective intelligence (Nash, 2005; Szuba, 2002), inferential intuition (Klein, 2003; Torff & Sternberg, 2001); “civic intelligence” (Dewey, 1937); or various non-linear components (Kosko, 1994) without expanding the vertical dimension into translogical cognitive modalities. Note: Here the “horizontal” axis refers to cognitive domains that remain in the traditional western conceptions of localised representations of mind, while the “vertical” represents depictions of intelligence expanded into non-localised and transcendent potentials.
Such discourses as these tend to avoid the issue of integrated intelligence altogether. The assumptions of the mechanistic paradigm from which these theories and models emerge do not allow for debate on consciousness and intelligence to embrace the conception of an integrated intelligence, as a localised and non-integrated intelligence is implicit within that paradigm.

1.4.1 The methodology
In this section the methodology will be outlined. Inayatullah’s (1998, 2002a) Casual Layered Analysis (CLA) will be detailed, situating the method within postcritical discourse and futures studies. Bussey’s (2004) Critical Spirituality is also discussed, and the Integrated/Fragmented Mind Model (IFM) introduced. The concept of ways of knowing is also explicated here, as it is crucial to the methodology employed in this thesis. Finally, the limitations of the method are outlined.

1.4.2 Poststructuralist thought, futures studies and Causal Layered Analysis
In the context of Poststructuralism and critical futures research, Sohail Inayatullah’s (1998, 2002a) Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) will be used to unpack the texts of intelligence, consciousness, and other relevant discourses – rational, intuitive, pre-rational, integrated and other modes. Slaughter (1999) identifies four ways that the knowledge base of futures studies is growing – namely critique, innovation, new voices, and synthesis. Slaughter posits CLA within the category of critique, or critical futures studies. As Slaughter indicates, critical futures studies is more than just criticism. It is “also about the ability to understand problems, issues and phenomena in depth.” (Slaughter, 1999:29). The multi-layered methodology of CLA allows for that depth to emerge. Further, as Slaughter points out, CLA allows for the movement beyond purely western futures, towards a “multi-civilisational view” of futures studies. (ibid.) The benefits of this for the analysis of integrated intelligence are obvious, in that integrated intelligence is a conception that has been all but excluded from modernist, western intelligence theory, and is primarily found in pre-modern and/or non-western texts, or feilds that have been influenced by them.
CLA takes as its starting point the assumption that there are different levels of reality and ways of knowing. Individuals, organizations and civilizations see the world from different vantage points. (Inayatullah 2002a:10) CLA analyses problems at four levels: namely the empirical and factual; the social; the worldview of individuals involved; and the mythological level. A prime goal of this thesis is to identify the strengths and weaknesses that are inherent within the given texts. The goal is not to prove or disprove the existence of an integrated intelligence per se, but to assess the role that each of these four levels plays within the discourses – for example modern rationality, and epistemic rationality (ordering of reality via epistemes).
CLA is an ideal methodology to employ for this thesis topic. The debate on integrated and transrational intelligence remains at an embryonic phase in education. The deconstruction process inherent in CLA allows the assumptions, worldviews and paradigms that underpin various depictions of intelligence to be brought forward with greater perspective. Whatever conclusions can be gleaned from this will enable future researchers to move into more specific aspects of this field with a greater sense of where the debate lies in juxtaposition to intelligence theory, consciousness research, and science and education in general. Finally, the use of CLA within this research topic is intended to lay the foundations of a map which will depict the potential applications of integrated intelligence in contemporary education.

1.4.3 CLA and Bussey’s critical spirituality
Futures studies has taken much influence from the postmodernist tradition and postcritical theory. Futures studies is, according to Inayatullah: “Committed to multiple interpretations of reality”, and this legitimates “the role of the unconscious, of mythology, of the spiritual… instead of views of reality for which only empirical data exists.” (Inayatullah, 2002a: 3)
CLA is a means to conduct inquiry into the nature of past, present and future. It problematises the present and the past, allowing the possibility of alternative futures to emerge. (Inayatullah, 2002a) The purpose of CLA is to elucidate the deeper meanings imbedded within texts via the application of the four layers, and to allow the acknowledgement of other ways of knowing (ibid.). The first level of CLA is the “litany”, which examines the rational/scientific, factual and quantitative aspects of texts. The second level - the social/systemic - deconstructs the economic, cultural, political and historical components. The third level of CLA explores the discourse/worldview of texts, identifying the deeper social, linguistic, and cultural structures. The final component of CLA is the mythical/metaphorical level. This reveals the hidden and explicit mythologies, narratives, symbols and metaphors contained in texts. This includes any emotional, unconscious and archetypal dimensions (Inayatullah, 2002a).
Once the discourse is expanded into these four levels, the way is then cleared for a movement beyond the purely critical and rational, which in turn allows for the re-introduction of the actual experience and employment of other ways of knowing, (including integrated intelligence). The tools and non-ordinary states of consciousness entailed in the use of integrated intelligence provide a means for actualizing what Slaughter calls “transformative” futures, and what Moffett calls “education for transformation”, where the transpersonal and spiritual have been re-integrated into our discourses and our pedagogies. (Moffett, 1994; Slaughter, 1999: 359)
As indicated, CLA can be seen as being situated within critical futures. As Inayatullah (1998) states, CLA is

“…less concerned with disinterest, as in the empirical, or with creating mutual understanding, as in the interpretive, but with creating distance from current categories. This distance allows us to see current social practices as fragile, as particular, and not as universal categories of thought – they are seen as discourse, a term similar to paradigm but inclusive of epistemological assumptions.” (Inayatullah, 1998: 16)

Yet this distancing, an inherent tool of postcritical thought (Inayatullah, 2002a), does not in itself actualise spiritual, mystical or translogical experience. The tools of postcritcal thought and CLA are primarily analytical. CLA does however, leave an idealised space, a field of potential for these domains.
Bussey’s (2004) concepts of “critical spirituality” and “Neo-Humanism” provide a further, deeper dimension to the situating, legitimising, and indeed experiencing of integrated intelligence within contemporary discourse and society at large. Critical spirituality is essentially Neo-Humanism as method. Neo-Humanism was developed to initiate “a new narrative to provide the inspiration and the tools to transform our selves and our future.” (Bussey, 2004: 203) It has a definite methodology which drives a critical spirituality which “complements the critical method that underpins the most proactive and vibrant areas of futures research.” (ibid.) Neo-Humanism embraces a Tantric epistemology, and espouses an holistic perspective of life that is both philosophical and practical. It spans both east and west by taking inspiration from the humanist tradition emphasising the seminal importance of human consciousness within the domain of action, whilst it also embraces empirical methodology and experimental rationality. As Bussey sums up: “the methodology of Neo-Humanism is scientific in nature but deeply metaphysical in origin”, integrating the rational and intuitive realms. (ibid.)
Bussey writes that:

Critical spirituality redefines rationality and empiricism by including within their framework both the somatic and the meditative as valid and necessary components of any research activity. (Bussey, 2004: 199)

Bussey further argues that Neo-Humanism provides “a coherent narrative… that extends critical futures research by proposing a critical spirituality to compliment the reason of the head, with a reason of the heart or soul.” It is infused with a “metaphysical depth.” (Bussey, 2004: 203) Thus within the model of Neo-Humanism, progress emerges from the spiritual domain. (Bussey, 2004)
Thus if we are to diagrammatically depict the situation of integrated intelligence in contemporary discourse, the following diagram summarises the argument posited here.

Diagram 1.1: Situating integrated intelligence within postmodern thought


7.Integrated intelligence


6.Critical spirituality


5.Neo-humanism


4.Causal Layered Analysis


3.Critical Futures



2.Post-critical discourse


1.Postmodernism


If we look at this somewhat simplistically as a liner progression rather than as a dynamic system of interacting levels, we see that the insertion of spiritual and transpersonal modes of cognition occurs below the level of CLA. Yet it is the theoretical inclusion of the spiritual, the metaphorical, the analogical and other ways of knowing within CLA theory that represents the seminal insertion point that permits the re-entry of spiritual discourses into contemporary theory. On all levels below CLA, the predominant tools and methods are rational-empirical.
Integrated intelligence is the practical link that makes real Bussey’s (2004) claim that Neo-Humanism provides the metaphysical depth to move beyond linear modes of rationality and sensory reality. While CLA and critical spirituality, by definition, predominantly employ analytical and critical cognitive modes, the employment of integrated intelligence potentially expands these discourses via a direct experiential link with a cosmic intelligence, grounding the entire framework in practical transpersonal/mystical experience. This re-instates the missing dimension of “all the messy stuff” which has been left out of modernist science (Schlitz, 2001: 341) and perpetuated by the aperspectivism of postmodernism. (Bussey, 2004; Wilber, 2000a)


1.4.4 Wilber’s Integral Theory
As shown in Diagram 2 below, Wilber’s (2000a, 2000c) Integral Theory and four-quadrant model specifies four domains of general human inquiry. Note: I have also found Floyd’s (2005: 48) summation of Wilber’s model helpful in developing this account of Wilber’s model. The four quadrants incorporate the individual, collective, interior and exterior aspects of perception, of reality. Wilber’s argument is that none of the quadrants should be reduced down to another. This includes the subjective, inner perceptions of the upper left being reduced to the exterior materialism of the upper right – a process endemic within contemporary psychology and consciousness theory. (Wilber, 2000a)


Diagram 2: Wilber’s Four-Quadrant Model (simplified)
Upper Left
Interior-individual
The “subjective”
Consciousness/culture




Upper right
Exterior-individual
The “objective”
Matter/energy/systems



Lower left
Interior-social
Inter-subjectivity
The cultural




Lower right
Exterior-social
Inter-objectivity
The social


Adapted from Wilber (2000c): inside cover

Using Wilber’s map, it can be seen that the depictions of consciousness and intelligence in western texts in the modern era have tended to exclude the subjectivity of the upper left-hand quadrant – the interior/individual. This is the domain of integrated intelligence, the awareness of knowledge of the psychic and transpersonal as experienced via an inward, “subjective” focus of mind. The tendency throughout the twentieth century has been for contemporary developmental and cognitive psychology to become increasingly a handmaiden to neuroscience (Maddox, 1999), which focuses its attention upon the top-right hand domain - the exterior individual. (Wilber, 2000a)
The other crucial component of the model is that it is hierarchical; the arrows moving outward suggest the outward and upward thrust of evolutionary forces of the “Kosmos”. Wilber’s Kosmos has an intelligence/consciousness and evolutionary imperative of its own. (Wilber, 2000c)
Wilber’s four-quadrant model will be used as a reference point in the analyses that occur throughout this thesis. Yet the purpose of this thesis is not only to discern the representations of mind within modern texts on intelligence, but also to discern the rudiments of the actual dominant manifestation or experience of the fragmented mind in modernity, and especially the psycho-spiritual factors which have greatly contributed to this dominance. For it will be argued that the dominant representation of mind as essentially mechanistic and brain-based is itself a function of the predominance of the fragmented mind amongst those constructing the texts.
Note: de Mause (2005) finds that most people even today have only achieved a partial integration of their "relatively independent subselves" that they begin constructing as small children. de Mause has found that fourteen percent of the general public experience “substantial dissociative symptoms", while most of the general population experience “lesser dissociative symptoms.” He argues that it is repressed trauma that lies at the heart of this dissociation, and points out that half of contemporary adults have suffered sexual abuse as children, and that most adults have been physically and emotionally abused to some degree, while responsible and caring parenting is relatively rare. de Mause does not find that these dissociative states are reflective of a failure to connect with transcendent cognitive potentials, nor non-localised, stygian or spiritual influences (which is consistent with certain aspects of indigenous and medieval cultures and integrated intelligence). However he does concede that

…people in the past had their demon alters exorcised or had conversations with their various inner souls, but even today religious spirit possessions are not uncommon. A third of Americans say they have experienced other spirits in themselves and over 90 percent of us believe in and at times converse with (pray to) god alters of one sort or another.” (de Mause: http://www.psychohistory.com/htm/eln09_psychesociety.html)

de Mause does not imply that these traditional spiritual influences are legitimate, but merely points out that these dissociative states were more readily addressed in pre-modern cultures.
While de Mause does not refer to transcendent components of mind, his findings suggest that the typical contemporary mind at the every least exists in a state of psychological dissociation. The possibility of ego/transpersonal fragmentation is one that requires further research in order to establish empirical validation, but an empirical evaluation is highly problematic.

Reanney (1991) finds a simple explanation for the dissociation of mental and spiritual in contemporary society.

It is obvious… that most of the choices we make limit the universal quality of consciousness… Overtime, after many choices have been made, after we have fixed the structure of our thoughts in words through tens of years, we emerge with a lens on the world which is tightly defined and narrowly focused. Over time, gradually, irresistibly, inevitably the ego-self becomes a trap for consciousness, a prison in which our vision becomes increasingly ensnared and emeshed. (Reanney, 1991:170)

Finally, the fundamental predicate of the integrated/fragmented mind model is that human consciousness is non-localised and embedded within a “sea” of universal consciousness. As has been stated, this argument has been represented in transpersonal, positive and humanistic psychology, in indigenous cultures, and in numerous spiritual traditions, both East and West.

1.4.5 The integrated/fragmented mind model (IFM)
The integrated/fragmented mind model follows mystical and transpersonal theory/experience (Ferrer, 2000; Gebser, 1985; Grof, 2000; Wilber, 1999, 2000c) which states that there are both rational/ego-based and transrational states of mind driving human evolution. In Wilber’s and Gebser’s models (ibid.), consciousness evolves from pre-personal and undifferentiated modes, through to rational and ultimately to transpersonal modes.
As used here, the term “the integrated mind” features the conscious mind in awareness of its essentially non-localised and universal nature. Concurrent with this is the experience or knowledge of externalised “influences” on the mind, including mystical, deific, spiritual and stygian.
The term “fragmented consciousness”, by implication, is the state whereby the conscious mind is unaware of its non-localised, transpersonal nature, and exists in a state of dissociation from any genuine awareness of universal or spiritual consciousness. It is characterised by the mind’s drive to perpetuate its state of separation, by a need for control and power, and to deny death and impermanence. (Grof, 1995; Krishnamurti, 1987; Wilber, 1999, 2000c)

1.4.6 Ways of knowing
Central to this thesis is the concept of ways of knowing. As indicated, CLA acknowledges different levels of reality and different ways of knowing. (Inayatullah 2002a:10) The argument shall be that it is primarily the employment of ways of knowing (Broomfield, 1997; Pickstone, 2000), mediated by historical, civilisational, paradigmatic factors and ultimately levels of consciousness which have affected the development of science, and in turn scientific conceptions of intelligence and consciousness.
The argument in this thesis is predicated upon an essential distinction between rational and intuitive ways of knowing. However these two categories are themselves generalised, and can be further broken down into more specific categories as follows.

Table 1.1. Intuitive and Rational Ways of Knowing

Intuitive
Inferential intuition.
Classical Intuition.

Rational
Classificatory ways of knowing. (Pickstone, 2000)
Analytical ways of knowing. (Pickstone, 2000)
Experimental ways of knowing. (Pickstone, 2000)
Mathematical/logical intelligence. (Gardner, 1993)
Rational/ linguistic intelligence. (Gardner, 1993)

Note: These categories should not be seen as distinct and inseparable. In regard to rationality, Pickstone’s (2000) three dominant ways of knowing in science can be seen as interdependent. Further, all of these can be seen to involve the final two categories – mathematical and rational/linguistic intelligences, to some degree. For example, the so-called fathers of modern science, such as Galileo, Kepler and Newton, all employed mathematics to complement their experiments and/or observations. (Hawking, 2003)

The intuitive ways of knowing
Inferential intuition is mundane intuition. Torff and Sternberg (2001a) define intuitive intelligence as a form of implicit knowledge, or “knowledge or knowledge structures that individuals acquire and use largely without conscious reflection or explicit instruction”. (Torff and Sternberg, 2001a: introduction: vii) As Ben-Zeev and Star (2001) argue, such “intuitions” contain a barely conscious reasoning process. This is consistent with the inferential-intuitionist viewpoint (ibid.). This construction of intuition is an overtly rational one, and incorporates no metaphysical or mystical components. It thus differs radically from the classicalist position, such as that of Spinoza and Bergson, which holds that intuitions are essentially metaphysical, a priori and antithetical to reason. (Ben-Zeev and Star, 2001: 31, 51) Integrated intelligence, domains one and two, can be seen as part of the classicalist position.
Note: There are other possible ways of knowing that could have been classified in the intuitive domain such as spiritual intelligence (Levin, 2001; Zohar, 2000); cosmic consciousness (Bucke, 1991; Kubler-Ross, 1977); while Wilber’s (2000a, 2000b, 2000c) subtle, causal and non-dual modes of consciousness are incorporated into level one integrated intelligence. Various depictions of the psychic realm, such as that of Wilber (ibid.).; Broomfield (1977); and Targ & Katra, (1999, 2001); are consistent enough to be been included under domain two integrated intelligence. However the two intuitive categories have been selected here because they are simple yet cover what I see as the essential distinction between sensory and extra-sensory perception, which in turn reflects generalised preferences inherent in western and eastern epistemes respectively.

The rational ways of knowing
Max Weber argued that the west is distinguished from the Middle East in its rationalising of all forms of thought. (Huff, 2003: 6) The rational ways of knowing that are listed here can be seen as subsets of the broader general concept of rationality, which is “the power of the intellect to comprehend, reflect, abstract, analyze, and draw conclusions.” (Rohmann, 1999: 337)
Dawkins (1998) epitomises this rationalist mode of cognition within modern science when he writes that:

With the aid of external memories and symbol-manipulating artifacts - paper and pens, abacuses and computers - we are in a position to construct a working model of the universe and run it in our heads before we die. (Dawkins, 1998: 312)

Rationality in this sense is the mind of symbol, of data and manipulation; the mind of the ratio. (Wildman, 1996) In essence the empirical-scientific worldview is the world of the symbol, where the word, the number, and the computer image are what constitute the real. The result is that the ways of knowing (method) of science are virtually incapable of dealing with quality in general, and are, as Whitehead stated, “primarily quantitative”. (quoted in Wilber, 2001: 24)
There are five rational ways of knowing identified here: classification/natural history, analysis, experimentalism, rational/linguistic intelligence, and mathematical/logical intelligence.

Pickstone’s three ways of knowing
Pickstone (2000) identifies rationality (as deployed in the age of science) as consisting of three ways of knowing: classification and analysis (natural science), experimentalism (invention), and technoscience. These ways of knowing are not exclusive from each other, and yet they have developed sequentially in this order during the scientific era. Revolutions in science, suggests Pickstone, do not totally dispense with previous ways of knowing; they merely displace them (Pickstone, 2000: 25) The argument that follows builds upon Pickstone’s (2000) three-tier model of rationality, with the addition of Gardner’s (1993) generalised rational/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences.

Classification/natural history
Natural history is broadly similar to Wilber’s (2001) “eye of flesh.” Pickstone finds that this “notebook science” employed a way of knowing that was “about describing and collecting, identifying and classifying, utilizing and displaying” (Pickstone, 2000: 60). The main purpose was to record the wonder of nature, and was motivated by “a compulsion to identify and collect” (ibid.), and not for functional use, nor to elicit meaning from nature (Pickstone, 2000).
Pickstone states that natural history as a way of knowing dominated science beginning around the year 1500, when medieval anatomy texts featured naturalistic diagrams. (Pickstone, 2000: 63) Thereafter, natural science and analysis were primarily responsible for the “massive restructuring” of science, technology and medicine beginning from the late eighteenth century. (ibid.: 106) The main driving forces of natural history were “the pride of possession”, “intellectual satisfaction”, and the needs of “commerce and industry.” (ibid.; 60).

Analysis
Analysis as a way of knowing can be seen in science’s analyses of the structures, processes and forms of plants and animals. Analysis also incorporates the earth and social sciences, which began to emerge around 1800. (ibid.: 106) In modern medicine the proliferation of analysis can be seen in hospital laboratories, where the components of bodies are examined by post-mortem anatomies or microscopial specimens, by analysis of blood chemicals and bodily tissues, by immunological testing for antibodies, by electrical sensors including electrocardiodiagrams (ECGs) and electroencephalograms (EEGs). (ibid.)

Experimentalism
According to Pickstone, experimentalism emerged around the mid-nineteenth century. (ibid.: 30) It can be seen that it has broad similarities to Wilber’s (2001)“eye of flesh.” Experimentalism was “about making and displaying new worlds”. (Pickstone, 2003: 30) Pickstone argues that experimental science was essentially a product of the nineteenth century. (ibid.; 136) Its emergence emphasises the relationship between experimentation and systematic invention. As Pickstone states, experimentalism “concentrates on the creation and control of novelty.” (ibid; 136) He argues that the parallels between experiment and invention are so close that they may be considered the same thing. (ibid.;136). An example is when Pasteur designed bent-drawn-out necks on his flasks, satisfying audiences that he could control fermentation, and showing that fermentation was not a spontaneous process. (ibid.:135)
Maddox (1999) finds that the understandings of physics of recent decades are "intellectual triumphs of the first order, but none of them would command confidence without the crucial clues provided by experimenters." (Maddox, 1999: 88) Maddox’s point not only shows that experimentation is a prime way of knowing in physics, it also suggests one of the reasons why psi phenomena (such as clairvoyance, ESP and telepathy) and integrated intelligence are not readily acknowledged in modern science is the fact of the “capricious, actively evasive, unsustainable nature of psi” is not readily amenable to empirical analysis. (Kennedy, 2003: 53)

Mathematical/logical intelligence
Moving beyond Pickstone’s (2000) three ways of knowing, mathematics has been added here because its significance in the development of the modern world and science is so great that it requires a category in its own right. Logical-mathematical intelligence is employed to calculate and quantify mathematical problems, and secondly to examine hypotheses and propositions. (Gardner, 1993)
It can be seen that western rationalist hegemony has been greatly influenced by the development of this intellectual capacity. Ben-David (1964, 1971) sees the scientific age beginning in the seventeenth century, with the coming together of the mathematical tradition of Europe and the experimental and empirical movement in England. (ibid.). Needham finds that “the application of mathematical hypotheses to Nature,” including “the geometrization of space” was seminal in the development of modern science in the late Renaissance." (Needham, 1969: 15) Further, the central issue raised by the Copernican revolution was “the right of the mathematical astronomer to make claims in natural philosophy". (Huff, 2003: 345) The ultimate answer, as adjudged by the eventual implementation of the heliocentric universe in modern science, was “yes” - and mathematics has played a seminal role in scientific breakthroughs ever since. It is arguably the final arbiter of truth in modern science.

Rational/Linguistic intelligence
This intelligence is the capacity use language and words to construct and understand thoughts, ideas and meanings. (Gardner, 1993) It can be seen that rational/linguistic intelligence is a prerequisite for all four the other ways of knowing listed here, including mathematical, for it is difficult to imagine understanding even mathematical conceptions without the aid of language to posit questions, conceptions and problematics. It appears that consciousness as we understand it is predicated upon language and that the kind of self-awareness that we associate with being conscious would not be possible without the use of language. (Jaynes, 1990)
Linguistic intelligence is not only important in terms of what it is, but also in terms of what it is not. The question is whether it represents the ultimate evolutionary leap of mind (ibid.), or whether it constricts certain kinds of perception, and indeed integrated intelligence will be discussed further in chapter two.

The verbs of perception reveal the way of knowing.
Through an examination of the verbs of perception used by various scientists, philosophers and mystics, the cognitive processes (ways of knowing) of theorists can be made explicit. This reveals two levels of a discourse. Firstly, in the case of individuals who were seminal in the establishment of the western rationalist hegemony, it can be determined what ways of knowing they employed to perceive and communicate their understandings. Secondly, where researchers and philosophers are commenting and critiquing other individuals, institutions, and even civilisations, the verbs that they attribute to those they are commenting upon and analysing, can be used to determine the civilisational or paradigmatic biases of the critic. Wilber’s (2001) concept of “category error” is particularly relevant here, as the employment of an inappropriate “eye of knowing” to attempt to understand knowledge gleaned from a different “eye of knowing” may lead to misunderstandings.
Though certain verbs may be used in both intuitive and rational modes of perception, they may be generalised into two distinct groups in the following manner.

Table # 1: Classification of verbs of knowing into rational and intuitive

Intuitive
Rational
Intuit
Feel
See
Hear
Contemplate
Meditate
Sense
Perceive
Channel
Reveal (revelation)
Connect with
Divine (verb)
Access
Actualize



Rationalise
Postulate
Intellectualise
Theorise
Extrapolate
Cognise
Conclude
Think
Deconstruct
Examine
Dispute
Argue
Observe
Measure
Read
Research
Deduce
Calculate
Detect
Dispute
Take apart
Reduce
Collect
Gather
Extrapolate
Study

While it is acknowledged that any dichotomy such as this involves some degree of approximation and generalisation, the verbs have been placed according to their most common usage in the texts which constitute the subject matter of this thesis. In the texts that are transcribed and referred to in the chapters to follow, the verbs of knowing, where appropriate, will be highlighted in bold text.


1.4.8 Limitations of the method, and thesis in general
Comparing and contrasting thinkers and schools from different eras is always problematical. There is the possibility that the reviewer will interpret past texts in the light of his/her own worldview, and fail to consider seminal differences in method, culture, or even consciousness itself. For example, the understandings and the worldview of Chinese mystic Lao Zi (who lived some 2600 years ago in rural China), is inevitably vastly different from that of Ken Wilber (2000c), living in the present age. This is despite the fact that they both exhibit a deeply mystical worldview. Jaynes (1990) argues that ancients such as Lao Zi did not even posses a differentiated consciousness, but instead lived in an egoless mental state directed by the auditory hallucinations of the “bi-cameral mind”. If Jaynes’ thesis is correct, attempting to interpret Lao Zi’s understanding as a product of a considered and introspective modern mystic, is as invalid as the Jiyu’s (1998) attempt to deconstruct it in line with the assumptions of the Marxian dialectic. The distancing tools of postcritical thought (Inayatullah, 2002a) can help to disrupt such tendencies, but cannot guarantee any true impartiality. It can only make explicit the worldview of the interpreter. In the case of this thesis, this has been presented in the personal prelude of the thesis.
Another major challenge is the impossible task of attempting to make a complete map of all thinkers, schools and developments within all the disciplines covered within this thesis. This is obviously because of the sheer weight of research and work being carried out in each field. Within this thesis alone, just some of the fields that have been examined include: intelligence theory, various schools of psychology (including transpersonal, positive, humanistic, cognitive, developmental, behaviourist and parapsychology), education, mysticism and spirituality, consciousness theory, systems theory, quantum physics, deep ecology, genetic biology and evolutionary theory. Thus what is hoped to be achieved is not a complete map, but the equivalent of a cross-section of a broad theme (integrated intelligence) across these several fields, and the gleaning of some broad themes and developments. Yet such is the nature of futures as a discipline, that a cross-disciplinary approach is arguably the best means to uphold its self-proclaimed inclusive nature.
The diversity of the fields themselves leads to the difficulty of attempting to gain a competent understanding of all the fields without in any way misunderstanding and/or misrepresenting them. As an example of this issue, the comprehension of the abstract conceptualisation of quantum theory and its quantum logic (Clarke, 1995) and the essentially transrational perceptual knowledge of mysticism, require completely different cognitive modes, or ways of knowing.
The different approaches to history and knowledge explicit within the scientific, philosophical and mystical discourses creates a problematic in terms of comparison and contrasts. How does one deconstruct the disparate approaches without valorising the constituents or worldview of any of them? If one is to accept the dominant western modernist scientific worldview, then the value of integrated intelligence and its validity rests almost entirely upon its measurability. Yet this in itself is a perpetuation of the western rationalist hegemony, since integrated intelligence in is nebulous, “elusive” (Batcheldor, 1994) and by definition “transcendent”.
Inayatullah (year, in understanding understandings) identifies several problems inherent with comparative methodologies. While Inayatullah’s analysis refers specifically to situating the work of Indian mystic P.R Sarkar, it is equally applicable to comparative approaches in general, such as with this thesis. Firstly, the comparative approach is ahistorical, with the possibility that two different worldviews/paradigms will be merely compared with one another “at a particular place in time.” (ibid.:247) Secondly, the units of analysis become problematic (ibid.). For example, is integrated intelligence a cognitive modality, a theory of evolution, a new paradigm (or an old one), or a philosophical tradition? Therefore the units of comparison are in themselves problematic. (ibid.) A related issue involving the comparative approach is that it “does not reveal the structure of the categories chosen…” (ibid.: 247). Inayatullah gives the example that the categories that are selected for comparison will inevitably be an essential component of cosmology and discourse (ibid.). Thus in terms of this thesis, the categories such as ways of knowing (including types of intelligence), paradigms, and even discourses themselves are relatively recent western concepts. Inayatullah (ref) points to the categories of nature and technology (as separate entities), as being cognisant only “in Occidental models of thought” (ibid.: 247). This means that the selected categories are implicitly problematic because they may constitute a component of “the structure of a particular discourse” (ibid.), with the potential of constructing a taxonomy:

…which effectively simply compares not two cosmologies with each other, but the given cosmologies with the silent cosmology that the categories chosen are themselves embedded in… (ibid.)

Coming from the postcritical perspective of Foucault (1984), it is the underlying power structures of dominant western scientific discourses that will be analysed in this thesis, and significant linear and teleological hegemonies made explicit. Yet the limitation of this approach is the inevitable invalidation of the truth claims of the texts being examined. Therefore it also undermines the claims of spiritual and mystical discourses to provide a framework for meaning, and insight into a purposeful universe. Foucault, for example has often been criticised for his rejection of agency (Coole, 2005). Coole is even more critical of postmodernism and postcritcial theory’s claims that:

…subjects are too unstable or fragmented in their identities, too opaque in their self-knowledge and too nonrational in their thinking to sustain personal commitments or collective identifications; that there is no essential inner self, repository of freedom, will, identity or autonomy; that subjectivity is merely an effect of power or performative iteration; that history has no overall meaning or direction. (Coole, 2005: 126)

Such a method, such a worldview - for both Coole (2005) and Wilber (2000c) have pointed out that postmodernism is a worldview in itself - creates an inherent dilemma when attempting to allow for the inclusion of integrated intelligence into any vision of a future society or education system. For as previously stated, agency is a prime conception within spiritual and mystical texts, as well as other fields which incorporate integrated intelligence. How can we incorporate the processes and a worldview of integrated conceptions of mind and cosmos when the method of enquiry renders its central conceptions illegitimate. This is the dilemma of the “relativism” that postmodernist thought often degenerates into. (Wilber, 2000c) As Wilber has queried: which is better, the philosophy of Nazism or Mother Teresa? (ibid?) Postmodernism struggles to answer any such questions of value. It can merely point out that they are different, and contain different power imperatives.
Thus this thesis attempts to move beyond this limitation of postcritical theory and posit suggestions and possibilities into the ways in which integrated intelligence might be incorporated into educational curricula, or may benefit western culture and research in the future.

Participatory futures and integrated intelligence
The way beyond this dilemma is participatory futures. Hollinshead (2002) finds that are two major types of futures research

Futures Research is fundamentally about mapping the future vis a vis the present and past. It may be divided into Anticipatory Futures and Participatory Futures. Anticipatory Futures is an academic discipline which uses scientific methodologies to explore the future. Participatory Futures is a praxis by means of which people create the future they prefer. Both are essentially about societal and cultural change, what it is and how it is accomplished. Anticipatory Futures maps the objective factors which social science indicates are implicated - technological change, demographics, economic dynamics etc. Participatory Futures creates a technology of societal and cultural change. (Hollinshead, 2002: 509)

Transpersonalism, like the eighteenth and nineteenth century romanticism which preceded it, entails a participatory epistemology (Strohl, 1998), and from this it can be readily seen that the conception of integrated intelligence is perfectly compatible with the concept of participatory futures. This also moves it beyond the purely analytical modes of postsructuralism and the methodology of CLA. Integrated intelligence, used with visioning and action learning, may potentially be one of the technologies that drives societal and cultural change. This will be further discussed in chapter six and the conclusion of the thesis.
In the participator model (Wheeler, 1983) where human and divine agency are theoretically intertwined, integrated intelligence could be seen as a link to knowledge which potentially makes the human journey a cognisant, conscious, and deliberate one.
This is also one way in which integrated intelligence might benefit futures, because as Hollinshead points out, both anticipatory and participatory futures are limited because of contemporary Western culture’s employment of limited cognitive modalities “in which emotion and direct experience of reality… are suppressed.” (Hollinshead, 2002: 509) This direct perception is virtually synonymous with the concept of integrated intelligence, and includes “non rational or non existential modes of consciousness”, according to Hollinshead. (ibid.) Hollinshead finds that the exclusion of this integrated intelligence is problematic in that throughout history social and cultural change have always been mediated by people who “seek direct experience of reality and the personal transformation it entrains.” (ibid.)
One goal of this thesis is to suggest the ways in which this might be achieved. (chapter six, and conclusion)
A further significant point made by Hollinshead in relation to these individuals whose elevated consciousness contributes greatly to human cultural and spiritual development, is the following:

… this suggests that Futures Research should be layered, in the sense that the various levels of mental modality should be made explicit in any piece of research. The dynamics of interaction between these layers needs to be explored. (ibid. Italics added)

Using CLA, Wilber’s Integral Theory, and the Integrated/Fragmented Mind model (IFM), Hollinshead’s suggestion is an important aspect of this thesis. Texts, theorists and schools will be analysed according to the degree that they permit an integrated process and representation of mind within their theories, their methods, and their lives.
Finally, while this thesis can make statements about the possible and probable futures of science, consciousness, education etc., it cannot do so in any way that might be conceived of as empirical. The future, by its very nature is nebulous and immeasurable, a field of potential and possibility, but ultimately unknowable.

1.5 Chapter Outline
This thesis is consists of six chapters, and a conclusion. Below, a brief summary of these chapters and their general content is given.

Chapter 1. Definitions, context, methods
As the title suggests, this chapter has three general aims. The first aim is to define integrated intelligence, including distinguishing amongst several related but distinct terms used in the literature and give a brief historical background. Secondly, the context for the thesis is also presented in this chapter, situating the debate in historical context, and within the perspective of contemporary society, education and research.
The third part of this chapter details the methodology. Postmodernist and postcritical theory is outlined in general, whilst Sohail Inayatullah’s (2002a) Causal Layered Analysis, and Wilber’s (2000c) Integral Model are detailed. The Integrated/Fragmented Mind model is also introduced.

Chapter 2. Literature review: The important debates
In a sense this thesis in its entirety is a literature review, reflective of the relative infancy of the subject matter. Thus an overview of the major debates in the relevant discourses is provided in the second chapter. Considering the cross-disciplinary nature of this thesis, there are numerous debates which are crucial to the topic, as the following list indicates.

Philosophy of science: The mechanistic paradigm
l Paradigms and the machine metaphor
l Rationality as highest form of intelligence in west
l Rejection of inner and transcendent;
l Reductionism vs. holism
l Ascendance of the abstract/mathematical
l Rejection of the affective
l Neo-Darwinism and intelligent design

Consciousness
l The mind/body problem
l Non-local consciousness
l Consciousness as epiphenomena
l Quantum physics, nonlocality, systems theory and consciousness

Psychology, intelligence, and neuroscience
l Developmental psychology and the issue of transrational stages of development
l Cognitive psychology as a handmaiden to neuroscience
l The mind as computer metaphor
l Intuition: mundane or extra-sensory?
l IQ and “g”: domain general vs. domain specific intelligence

Parapsychology
l The empirical evidence for psi
l Parapsychology as a handmaiden to empiricism

Transpersonal knowledge
l Transpersonal psychology, the criticisms including limitations as a discipline; lack of clear epistemology
l Inner empiricism. Wilber’s “eye of spirit” and its critics. Validity of first person approaches to consciousness.
l Ineffability – beyond the linguistic/rational modes of mind.
l Receptivity vs. control.

Chapter 3. A genealogy of the western rationalist hegemony
This chapter analyses the relationship between representations of consciousness in the Western world and the cultures, paradigms and disciplines in which they are situated. The selections span the period from the ancient Greeks, the rise of Christianity and religious thought in Europe, various schools of philosophy such as the British empiricists, the so-called scientific enlightenment, and the influence of Darwin. Thereafter the analysis turns to the modern era, including the seminal influence of early psychology, behaviourism, cognitive science, and genetic and biological theory. The linguistic, methodological and mythical aspects of these periods, fields and individuals are analysed using CLA.
The objective in this chapter is to trace the lineage of consciousness research and philosophy, and to elucidate the ways in which they are representative of various non-objective factors and subtle struggles for power that have extant throughout the history of representations of mind. It will be shown that there are “discursive practices or rules of reasoning” (Franklin, 1999: 347) constituted within the language of all consciousness disciplines and all texts, according to the dictates of the paradigm in which they are imbedded.

Chapter 4. Five representations of mainstream intelligence and consciousness theory
The purpose of this chapter is to analyse five texts which depict intelligence and/or consciousness in terms of the mechanistic presuppositions of mainstream contemporary discourses. The commonalties and distinctions amongst all of these texts will be clarified, and the predominant mental modalities identified. The texts are as follows.

Arthur Jensen (1998). “g” theory.
Edward de Bono. (1986, 1999) Six thinking hats.
Susan Greenfield. Brainstory (BBC television series, 2001). Neuroscience and popular science.
Howard Gardner (1993). The theory of multiple intelligences.
Torff and Sternberg (2001b). Intuition theory.

Chapter 5. Five representations of integrated intelligence
Similarly to the previous chapter, this chapter analyses the ideas of five thinkers whose works incorporate integrated intelligence.

Danah Zohar (2000) Spiritual intelligence.
Ken Wilber (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2001) Integral Theory.
John Broomfield (1997). Other ways of knowing.
Larry Dossey (1999, 2001 etc.) Non-local mind.
Moffett (1994). Spiritual education.

Inayatullah’s Causal Layered Analysis is used to deconstruct these texts. The five authors and their texts are compared and contrasted on some of their major themes.

Chapter 6. Integrated intelligence, the knowledge economy and education
Chapter six examines integrated intelligence and contemporary education within the context of the knowledge economy. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce several possibilities and potentials regarding the implementation of integrated intelligence into the modern public education system and the knowledge economy which it serves. There are thus two seminal questions. Firstly, what general uses might integrated intelligence have in the modern secular public education system? Secondly, what place might integrated intelligence have in the long-term development of education and society?

1.6 Conclusion to chapter one
The primary purpose of this thesis is not to examine the scientific evidence for the existence of integrated intelligence – to prove or disprove it. That is a problematic that – according to the tenants of the mechanistic paradigm – is best served by parapsychology. Rather, the purpose of this thesis is to problematise the very discourses within which mechanistic conceptions of consciousness and intelligence are constituted - or indeed excluded – and in line with Foucault (1984), to disrupt the hegemonic lineage of instrumental rationality. Further, there will be an attempt to suggest various potential applications for integrated intelligence in modern education and society. Finally a prime aim of this thesis is to re-open the discourses on the futures of intelligence, and the futures of education, such that the very presuppositions about consciousness and intelligence upon which the basis of humanity’s relationship with nature, the world, and the cosmos is founded, is brought to question.

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